PJ88, you raise some interesting points, which I consider below as comments and questions for discussion:
You imply that primacy is skilled behaviour, but this might not be the case. A novice decision maker is unlikely to have naturalistic skills due to the lack of ‘experience’, thus reversion in decision making would be back to basic teaching, e.g. an unskilled problem solving approach. If so then the novice is poorly equipped to deal with time critical, cue limited situations as appears to be the case.
Thus the training problem is to develop decision making expertise early in a career; perhaps vitally important in modern times with foreshortened career progression.
No doubt there are many ways of looking at decision processes; risk management could be a practical area which can be explained. Risk like many other aspects depends on knowledge, and how and when to employ that knowledge – how close to the edge of ‘safety’ – context dependent.
If you train the decision process (your example), it tends to be problem solving – strategic decision making; it lacks the dynamic element of tactical situations, thus more suited to planning.
IMHO the current safety issues relate to tactical decisions which contextually are linked to NDM / RPD. Thus situation assessment and expertise are key issues.
Questions: How is NDM achieved, how should pilots assess situations, what is expertise and how is it gained, can it be taught without exposure to reality?
Attempting to understand some of these aspects I considered my own, (dated) training experiences – (military, single seat). This was based on an extensive knowledge base and a broad range of practical experience. Both aspects focused on operating the aircraft – context training, not just handling skills.
Another significant contribution appears to have been ‘hidden’ in airmanship. This developed abilities to generate new knowledge from existing knowledge and previous experience, how to use what had been learnt in one context in another, without actually being there. This appears to be training in “how to think”; a significant item. The aspects above also continuously improved the base line of skill/experience; thus, the reversionary skill level was above ab inito and always improving.
There will be differences between military and civilian training, but the principles should be similar.
Re “… perhaps learning to make decisions solo is not the best way to learn to make decisions in a team environment? … too “expert” in single – pilot decision making … ”
This I would question, even turn around. It is entirely wrong to expect team DM to be like a committee. Solo DM training must instil personal responsibility for the decision (ownership / leadership).
IMHO the socialised CRM thinking, or fear of the ‘one-man band’, in training, is a cause of many operational problems.
Team decisions require good DM leadership (this starts with solo DM – the individual, the leader) and then together with independent monitoring-enquiry, again a solo activity from other team members, this opens discussion within the team as necessary. The group aspect comes from having a shared mental model.
We must beware of the hazards of using strategic decision making, a slow methodical behaviour, if the situation is one requiring quick tactical decisions, NDM; i.e. as in Orasanu & Martin – failing to understand the situation or not choosing an appropriate action (mode of thinking/decision making).
CRM behaviour (not DM) requires an appropriate cockpit gradient. Crews are more likely to consist of an experienced commander with a relative novice as monitor; each will be able to contribute to DM as above, but not equally.
Tactical decisions are not team decisions - RTOs, EGPWS, Windshear, TCAS, stall, go around, flight system mode change, autopilot disconnect, etc – many of which are central to recent safety issues.
Questions: How do experts make decisions in these areas? Are the key areas for training associated with erroneous behaviours in tactical decision making, human factors?
Is the difference between an expert and a novice decision maker the ability to assess the situation and choose an appropriate mode of thinking (type of DM)? If so, this is where training must focus its efforts.