Should basic use of navaids be taught before first solo cross-country training/

[Centaurus]

A report in the latest ATSB short investigation document discussed an incident where a Cessna 172 operating on a VFR cross-country from Gold Coast (19 March 2016) inadvertently entered cloud. ATC were helpful and the pilot soon became VFR again.
An extract from the ATSB investigation said:

At the time of the incident, the pilot had logged about 46 flying hours. Three hours of this was instrument3 flight training.
The pilot provided the following comments:
• The weather had changed very quickly, and that it was different to that expected.
• They felt no pressure to conduct the flight. They had been briefed to ‘turn back’ to the Gold Coast if at any time they felt uncomfortable with the weather.
• They did not specifically alert ATC that they had entered cloud. They had however, advised ATC that they were uncertain of the aircraft’s position, and accepted assistance in that regard.
• They had attempted to program the “Direct To” function on the KLN89B GPS installed in the aircraft, but had not been able to get this to work. They were not confident in the use of the navigation aids (VOR and ADF).
............................................................ .................................

Apart from the annoying and distracting Public Service use of "they" instead of he or she, it is surprising that the ATSB missed a good opportunity to comment on the last line where "they were not confident in the use of navigation aids (VOR and ADF)

The pilot had about 46 hours which no doubt included dual cross country time. Surely, before being sent on a solo cross-country trip his instructor(s) should have taught him the in-flight use of VOR and ADF as a back-up to map reading? The report mentioned the pilot also had problems using his GPS.

I have sympathy for the student who was dispatched on a solo cross country flight without being certified competent in basic use of VOR/ADF/GPS operation as a cross check against possible map reading errors. Instructors need to do better than this. There would have been ample opportunities to practice obtaining position lines during dual cross country flying. If these aids to navigation are installed in the aircraft, then I would think common sense and logic would dictate that students should be given instruction and tested on how to use them before flying in command on cross country navigation flights.

That said, maybe his/her/ instructors did not know how to use them, either:ugh:

[bgbazz]

IMHO you have raised a couple of very important points in your post. What's the point in flying an aircraft, of any size or configuration, maybe fitted with all the latest 'gadgets', if you don't understand them...or how to make them work for you?

I'm just a pedantic old fart who has been flying all sorts of flying machines since I was about 18yo...I'm 68 and a bit now., but one of my rules has always been...I don't fly anything that has anything U/S and I won't undertake a flight if the aircraft is fitted with anything I don't understand or can't operate to it's full capacity.

My log books show around 8500 hrs and I'm still around to bore the socks off you all, so I guess my system works to some degree.

The comment regarding instructors not knowing how things work is something I have come across in the past....sad, but true!

[oggers]

Well, there was a foreign student training with the RN/RAF. On his first solo cross country - despite all the checks and measures - he flew into a cloud on an otherwise nice day, and ended up bailing out. There is no question that he had the correct training, and just like everyone else he appeared to be ready for the sortie. And yet he got himself into a right pickle.

[Shagpile]

Concur - we just need to face the reality that DR is basically guessing where you are. DR navigation significantly increases cockpit workload, requires more flying currency, is subject to mental errors and does not allow the flexibility to safely divert around weather in a lot of circumstances. It's not fit for purpose in 2016.

DR is unsafe. There - I said it!

GPS should be normal. DR should be the endorsement.

[mikewil]

DR is unsafe. There - I said it!

GPS should be normal. DR should be the endorsement.

Completely agree with this statement. While basic DR and timing is essential to navigation, I think there is way too much emphasis placed on it in the early phases of training to the detriment of being trained in the appropriate use of GPS/Navaids.

A pilot's (especially a rookie) mental capacity to perform DR tasks in an abnormal sitation is far more likely to fail than the aircrafts GPS.

[Flying Ted]

All good points being raised here.

I took up flying late in life and was taken aback when it became clear that the training focused on using DR and wiz wheels rather than the modern technology. I wasn't shown nor encouraged to use the GPS until after completing my PPL. Of course now all my flight planning is done with Oz runways and navigation with the GPS albeit maintaining a look out for expected land marks (although my passengers think this is sight seeing).

I'd be interested to know how many pilots actually use DR and mechanical flight computers once their training is completed?

Herein lies a danger. EFB and GPS systems are complex and it is not difficult to make an error. For example, it is very easy to make mistake entering the correct W&B envelope in, say Oz runways, leading to a risk of taking off over weight. If training is intended to make us safer pilots then failing to train people in the use of these common aids seems a major oversight. Having said this, I haven't yet read a safety bulletin suggesting the incorrect use (as opposed to the non-use) of a GPS or ELB to be cause of incident so maybe it is not problem.

Cheers FT

[ForkTailedDrKiller]

Surely, before being sent on a solo cross-country trip his instructor(s) should have taught him the in-flight use of VOR and ADF as a back-up to map reading?

Learning VOR and ADF would be a complete waste of time and money.

The GOTO button is your friend!

I have carried at least one GPS when flying since 1991.

In the 43 years I have been flying the 3 greatest advances in GA have been GPS, digital fuel flow and all cylinder engine monitors.

[ravan]

Agree with the sentiments above......however..... While the CASA licence testing procedures wallow in the mid 20th century and insist that the CPL test be flown using predominantly DR techniques then the instructor has little choice but to teach these arguably outdated methods.

Couple this with the fact that competition for the student pilot dollar means that the school syllabus has to be comprehensive enough to meet the CASA requirements, yet trim enough to avoid extra costs that make you more expensive than the next school. There is precious little "fat" to ensure an in depth teaching of navaid & GPS use at the PPL level.

I prefer to prepare the student pilot to the best of my abilities as I'm sure any good instructor would. Part of the problem is that those abilities can vary widely between instructors and usually with no fault of the instructor.

An often heard phrase in recent times is "the race to the bottom" when talking of training standards and this is becoming more and more evident as the years roll on.

Instructors need CASA to get into the 21st century and not only allow navaid/GPS use as an aid to visual nav (as is the case at present), but to actively encourage the uptake of modern technology and methods and their use in licence testing. That would be a sure step towards increased safety as opposed to some of the stuff that has been foisted on us in recent years in the name of "safety".

[BleedingAir]

GPS is obviously the way of the present and future and I agree it should be taught at base CPL level - show me one charter aeroplane up north (IFR or otherwise) that's navigating using anything but GPS, or any pilot flying them that can remember or demonstrate any good visual DR technique.

It's also worrying the number of times I've encountered weekend warriors bumbling through CTAFs off-frequency due to hitting Direct-To then switching their brains off. GPS needs to be taught properly at CPL level, as another navaid, not as a completely bulletproof replacement for every other principle of navigation and airmanship, which quite a few seem to treat it as.

[drpixie]

Ted, Raven,

Herein lies a danger. EFB and GPS systems are complex and it is not difficult to make an error. ... I haven't yet read a safety bulletin suggesting the incorrect use (as opposed to the non-use) of a GPS or ELB to be cause of incident so maybe it is not problem.

I'd go further than not difficult - It is difficult to use modern avionics correctly and takes significant training. At RPL/PPL level, students are still getting used to the rate at which things happen - at least "look out and go there" doesn't involve lots of new skills.

And regarding incorrect use - not so much so at RPL/PPL/CPL level (because most incidents are not investigated) but it seems like every second airline incident is related to incorrect use of FMS/autopilot, or misunderstanding what it is/is-not doing. Again, the technology is not easy to use correctly.

Sure we could have RPL/PPL students using it - but that will take training = time and money.

[27/09]

What's being taught here, VFR cross country nav skills or the basics of IFR navigation?

I think there's too much emphasis on the use of technology and not enough on the basic VFR nav skills.

I don't think it's a good idea to teach the use of nav aids before VFR cross country solo flights. Students will spend time using the nav aids rather than honing the VFR DR nav skills.

There are too many accidents where pilots have allowed the GPS to give them the confidence to do stuff they shouldn't have been doing. I'm talking about PPL's here not students, but you have to wonder that if their basic VFR nav skills were better they wouldn't be relying on the GPS and may not have ended up coming to grief.

On a slight tangent I think there's too much eyes inside rather than eyes outside when pilots are flying VFR these days. It's a well recognised fact that students spend far too much time gazing at their C172's G1000 screens in the circuit rather than looking outside.

There's too many distractions inside the cockpit, multiple hand help GPS's, iPads etc, no wonder some end up in cloud inadvertently.

On the subject of flying into cloud the use of nav aids wont stop this. Proper instruction on judging whether or not you're above or below the base of an approaching cloud bank and assessing what the weather conditions are in your general vicinity and what your actions will be if the weather goes below your personal minimums (assuming you have some) would be much more use.

As one instructor told me the fast closing weather usually closes in at about 110 knots, i.e. the speed of your average light aircraft. In other words the weather very rarely changes that fast, you fly into the weather.

I'd be interested to know how many pilots actually use DR and mechanical flight computers once their training is completed?
I'd hope everyone does. Even with the use of technology you need to keep those skills practiced for the day the technology stops working. While I don't fly VFR very often these days I still enjoy doing the DR calcs during the flight. It's a good way to pass the time and keep you in the loop and it's helps guard against the old garbage in garbage out problem you face with modern technology.

[Dexta]

All good points being raised here.

I took up flying late in life and was taken aback when it became clear that the training focused on using DR and wiz wheels rather than the modern technology. I wasn't shown nor encouraged to use the GPS until after completing my PPL. Of course now all my flight planning is done with Oz runways and navigation with the GPS albeit maintaining a look out for expected land marks (although my passengers think this is sight seeing).

I'd be interested to know how many pilots actually use DR and mechanical flight computers once their training is completed?

Herein lies a danger. EFB and GPS systems are complex and it is not difficult to make an error. For example, it is very easy to make mistake entering the correct W&B envelope in, say Oz runways, leading to a risk of taking off over weight. If training is intended to make us safer pilots then failing to train people in the use of these common aids seems a major oversight. Having said this, I haven't yet read a safety bulletin suggesting the incorrect use (as opposed to the non-use) of a GPS or ELB to be cause of incident so maybe it is not problem.

Cheers FT
For example, it is very easy to make mistake entering the correct W&B envelope in, say Oz runways, leading to a risk of taking off over weight.
Why do you think this is so? Whether you are entering numbers on a keypad, on a screen or writing it on paper if you are slack with whatever form of input you use then you will make mistakes, a poorly written 5 mistaken as an 8 or a decimal place missed etc. I would surmise that a lot less errors are made with computer input as apposed to the old pen and paper.

[Biggles_in_Oz]

To be able to make use of VOR/NDB there must actually be a VOR/NDB.

ASA powered-off another 179 ground-based navaids in May 2016.

[Flying Ted]

A few observations on various comments.

ravan, I think we can all appreciate what is or isn't taught is a role for CASA in setting the syllabus. As you rightly say the instructors are teaching to standardize program.

27/09 I couldn’t agree more that there is a tendency to fly inside the cockpit. I do this myself. I wonder if I was actually trained to fully use the features of a glass cockpit and EFB from the get go, this would help establish the correct balance between eyes up or eyes down?

Dexta, you raise a good point as to whether or not an EFB is safer than the old wiz wheel. If it is safer we may need to keep this on a NTK basis otherwise it will become mandated.

Cheers FT

[aroa]

As an old clock and compass, stick and pencil man, no reason why modern students shouldnt have a grasp of basic nav principles....with a map AND map reading, which seems to be a lost art
Great to have all that modern picture stuff but when it does a fizzer that other nav aid perspex comes in handy. You can use it to look at the terrain and relate it to the map..if you have one, since the screen went blank.
Have had a couple of times out in the wide brown yonder when ye olde GPS took time out....so back to basics, map, clock and compass..it still gets you home.

You wont feel too lost these days if you draw a magenta line on the paper map.

[Judd]

Because map reading is an art there can be a quiet sense of achievement when a pin-point comes up on time as calculated. Not much achievement in hitting the Go-To button. When on cross-country flights it is a simple precaution before starting engines to draw a line of bearing from a nearby NDB or VOR to each appropriate pin point. Believe it or not, you don't have to be instrument rated to tune to a navaid frequency and use it as a plotted position line over any pin point on the chart. Handy to know if a pin point is hard to find while flying in haze or toward the setting sun.


Most flying schools have a synthetic training device. Students should be taught how to tune and identify a navaid, and obtain a bearing by ADF or VOR even before starting their first dual cross-country flight. Money well spent.

[27/09]

Judd: Believe it or not, you don't have to be instrument rated to tune to a navaid frequency and use it as a plotted position line over any pin point on the chart. Handy to know if a pin point is hard to find while flying in haze or toward the setting sun.

Very true. The OP was talking about a student pilot doing his/her X/country training for a PPL. Their instructor should not be sending them out in conditions where it's hard to pin point a position on a chart.

[Sunfish]

Without basic DR and map reading skills, you are building on sand. Successful DR requires an in depth understanding of basic navigational and map reading principles. There is no quicker and cheaper way to demonstrate mastery of those vital basic competencies than performing DR.

Furthermore, without those basic DR skills, what chance has our little button pusher got of detecting a GPS failure or wrong button push?

If you want to know real terror, wait till you loose all those avionics you relied on when a battery or alternator fails and you have not got access to a map, pencil, watch and magnetic compass.

[mikewil]

If you want to know real terror, wait till you loose all those avionics you relied on when a battery or alternator fails and you have not got access to a map, pencil, watch and magnetic compass.

That's when your fully charged iPad running a current database in OzRunways will come in very handy :ok:

[27/09]

wishiwasupthere: Would be pretty bad luck for my 2 iPads and iPhone running OzRunways go kaput at the same time as an alternator failure!

All you need is something like this, FAA Warns That Mystery Military Tests May Lead To Widespread West Coast GPS Disruptions | Zero Hedge (http://www.zerohedge.com/news/2016-06-07/mysterious-military-tests-may-lead-widespread-west-coast-gps-disruptions-faa-warns) or some idiot with an illegal jammer and it won't matter how many alternators, batteries or GPS receivers you have.

[Band a Lot]

"There is not a Government in the World that would not kill us all, for what's in that box"

Sneakers from 1992

37min to 39 min

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aN6aGRdGNXk

Yes threat is not electrical systems, but the information they supply.

[Arm out the window]

DR skills are not just handy as a fallback when the electronic gear fails, but a must for:

1. Situational awareness, so as to be able to deal with changes of plan or forced diversions due fuel or weather flexibly and sensibly, and

2. Use as an invaluable preflight planning tool, so with a map, calibrated distance measuring device (e.g. a pen, or the span of your fingers) and a knowledge of how many nm you go and how much fuel you burn per minute, you can quickly estimate whether something is feasible or not.

By all means use the GPS or OzRunways on your iPad, but don't be a slave to them. A map, compass, watch and some practice should be all you need to quickly get within a few minutes of ETA, litres of fuel and degrees of heading of the correct figures, and you'll be able to do it anywhere, any time without needing a computer.

This isn't sextants and sunshots we're talking about, it's the basic skill to be able to say 'I'm here, I need to go there, the wind is doing this, so this is my track, heading, distance, time and fuel burn' and be pretty close. Teach navaids and GPS use as an add-on, but as Sunfish said, have the sound basis of DR underpinning it all.

[gerry111]

I totally agree, AOTW.

(But I do wonder whether mental arithmetic is still taught in schools? And that's pretty useful when doing the DR nav stuff.)

[Arm out the window]

The mental arithmetic bit is certainly the sticking point for many, I think, particularly in aircraft that don't do a nice round number of nautical miles per minute!

[27/09]

The mental arithmetic bit is certainly the sticking point for many

Yep, have to agree, seen many an offsider reach for a pocket calculator to do a simple calc I've done in my head before they've even go the calculator out of their pocket.

particularly in aircraft that don't do a nice round number of nautical miles per minute!
This certainly doesn't help, though in many cases a rough answer will put you in the ball park, it doesn't have to accurate to decimal points

[Pinky the pilot]

(But I do wonder whether mental arithmetic is still taught in schools? And that's pretty useful when doing the DR nav stuff.)

Gerry111;From what a Friend with a Primary School aged Child told a while back; No!

Although I believe that it still is in most Private Schools.

As for the subject of this thread;

Without basic DR and map reading skills, you are building on sand. Successful DR requires an in depth understanding of basic navigational and map reading principles. There is no quicker and cheaper way to demonstrate mastery of those vital basic competencies than performing DR.


Roger that, Sunfish!:ok:

[Delta_Foxtrot]

AOTW, nail hit firmly on head as usual. As you know, my aviating days are over, but I'm firmly of the opinion that basics matter. Just ask Jack P and Dave R about us being in the Nullabor wilderness, no NAVAIDS within reach at 10,000 ft, and the (only) GPS antenna failed. Map-reading and accurate log-keeping saved the day.

[KRviator]

I have previously disagreed with Centauraus here, but on this one, I agree with him 100% - and for the reason that I don't think it is the first recent ATSB report to mention that the pilot couldn't use basic navaids but was out and about solo... :mad:

I have 4 independent GPS' on board my RV-9. A IFR panel-mount, the Dynon Skyview, the Ipad running OzRunways and the phone running RWY. Worst case I have a complete electrical failure and the EFIS goes dead. I still have two independent GPS' to get me where I need to go. Are they good enough to do so? Experience so far has demonstrated that they are.

That being said, I have not received any training on VOR or GPS navigation, but I would consider myself competent in both techniques. I learnt it from repeatedly reading the manuals, simulators, and toying with the gear at home. As it stands, the panel-mount is behind me as I type this while I build my own annunciator panel for it. But what's the point of this paragraph though, I hear you ask? It is this...Just because the student has not been taught VOR/GPS navigation techniques does not mean they can't learn it themselves. They have to want to do so, though. They have to have the desire better themselves, rather than just being spoonfed throughout their 40 hours.

While I agree that ADF & VOR's are going the way of the dinosaur, if you get so hopelessly lost that you have no idea what to do, there is no one there to bail you out. You need to be able to fix it, using the tools you have in front of you.

[catseye]

If you are looking at using ground based aids for training don't wast your time. There won't be any within range. This sup indicates which are going soon or have gone. http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/aip/current/sup/a16-h18.pdf

[27/09]

I think one very important point is being missed by some posters. In the incident quoted the pilot flew into cloud. No amount of nav aid training is going to fix that problem. There's other deficiencies at play here.

You have to ask how/why did that happen to start with?

Sure the weather may not have been what was forecast but I doubt it closed in that fast before corrective action should/could been taken.

The questions has to be asked about what "lost procedures" training the student had been given.

[cattletruck]

Perhaps a good ground run would help them get their bearings.
New to orienteering? : Orienteering Victoria (http://www.vicorienteering.asn.au/aboutorienteering/)

[Sunfish]

KRAViator: I have 4 independent GPS' on board my RV-9. A IFR panel-mount, the Dynon Skyview, the Ipad running OzRunways and the phone running RWY.

You actually make my point for me! You lose one GPS through failure and the other Three don't quite agree….. Which one is correct?????

To put that another way, "A man with a watch knows what time it is, a man with Two is never sure".

I speak from personal experience of GPS and system failure, thankfully in a marine environment in relatively calm weather, take it from me it is extremely disconcerting, especially if you are running an autopilot and coming up to a waypoint. There is a momentary feel of panic, followed by the realisation that you still have a pencil, ruler, chart and magnetic compass. Three minutes later you are back in control of where you are going despite the GPS and autopilot.

Now introduce our little friend Murphy in the air. Your panel mount GPS goes blank, the autopilot trips, the Skyview is still working on its backup battery but for how long? You are now hand flying, you drop the phone and the iPad falls out of its mount and you can't reach it, you worry it may jam the controls. You are in some turbulence, there is cloud about, you can't reach your glasses. There was a town you overflew a few minutes ago but you didn't get its name, nor if it has a serviceable airstrip because you were following "direct to"…… You didn't file a flight plan either.

..At least that is my personal nightmare.

Ain't modern technology wunnerful? I also have a Skyview and spare GPS, but I keep the paper chart going, just in case…… Call me old fashioned.

[outlandishoutlanding]

can't reach your glasses?

you must be one of those RAAus pilots who aren't required to carry a second pair, easily accessible.

[Centaurus]

you must be one of those RAAus pilots who aren't required to carry a second pair, easily accessible

But the second pair are in your nav bag aren't they? And therefore easily accessible. Problem is you need the other glasses which you have dropped to fish inside your nav bag to locate your easily accessible second pair of glasses. ok:

[Sunfish]

Turbulence just whisked the pair off my face and my headset bag with the second pair fell off the seat, my iPhone slid under the co pilot pedals and my iPad jammed itself behind the seat. All that was left on the GPS was the makers name… I looked down and the Golden Fleece road map I had jammed in the door was still there, I pulled it out, letting in an icy draft again, I was saved!

[outlandishoutlanding]

if both pairs of glasses were out of reach I'd be calling an emergency; since I would not be able to either spot other traffic, or see inside the cockpit well enough to see my instruments.

[Sunfish]

Outlandish, how would you know or set the frequency without your glasses?:hmm:

[outlandishoutlanding]

Surely I was already on area frequency with either FF or SARWATCH

[Old Akro]

The current flying training syllabus is alarmingly similar as the one I did in the 70's. Which itself was basically a hangover of the post war era of Tiger Moth training.

CASA is derelict in its responsibility to flight training by not having a more contemporary syllabus. But, the same can be said for all the State driving licence systems.

As an IFR pilot I like and defend the NDB / VOR back-up system and I'm critical of AsA / CASA for not treating it seriously enough. But for VFR pilots its now irrelevant. The era of teaching it as part of an ab initio VFR pilot training is well over.

ALL pilots should be fluent with GPS. And based on some of the ignorance I see of the way GPS works and its limitations on this forum, the current CASA GPS syllabus is not working.

BUT, you are not a pilot's a#@%&hole if you can't get to where you need to go by DR. Full stop.

And if you don't know the basics of DR navigation, you can never understand what the GPS is doing and whether its giving you a garbage information or not.

You can argue about which should be taught first. But if you can't navigate with only a compass and watch, then your'e not fit to be called a pilot. Because, one day you will be called upon to do so.

In my opinion the gap between a crap syllabus created by Canberra bureaucrats in air-conditioned offices and good airmen is where the true skill of great instructors is demonstrated.

[reynoldsno1]

DR skills are not just handy as a fallback when the electronic gear fails
ISTR when I did my first cross-country flight at the tender age of 17, there weren't any radio navigation aids fitted to the aircraft ...

[bushpig]

I am quite happy that I started out way before GPS, Ozrunways and all that. I am quite happy to use a WAC chart, compass and watch for VFR as although maybe a bit rusty at it I flew for many years with only that. Most of that flying was out of range of ADF's and VOR's anyway. I had an old Bendix T12C ADF in my Cessna 180 that was never the less pretty good at picking up ABC radio in remote areas for a little music.
Before you may think "who is this mad old bastard" well I have flown IFR aircraft like the B200 and others a significant amount as well. I like the modern gadgetry but still believe that a good grounding in basic airman skills will never go astray. As is being competent on instruments with a good but basic analogue IFR panel.

[scavenger]

ffs have all you people whinging about GPS not being 'in the syllabus' actually read it?

Have a look at NAV.8 and RNE in the MOS. Both of these units are required for CPL and PPL.

[Daisy0138]

You had better hurry up . With the introduction of ADSB all ndb and possibly vor stations will be decommissioned and the VFR pilot had better invest in GPS .

[Old Akro]

You had better hurry up . With the introduction of ADSB all ndb and possibly vor stations will be decommissioned and the VFR pilot had better invest in GPS .

The is no indication that the published list of backup VOR AND NDB beacons will be reduced any further.

In fact I have heard a rumour that the US is looking at increasing its land based navaids over concern that the US military may re-introduce dither to the GPS network.

If you are satisfied being a hack pilot, then following the magenta line will get you there. If you aspire to being an true airman then you will want to understand and be able to use all the tools in the box.

ADSB is not a navaid. It has nothing to do with the decommissioning of ground based navaids. Nor does it provide enhanced safety in the context of the Australian implementation. Nor is it required for VFR. ADS-B is a tax on IFR flying created by Australia which is the only country in the world that is mandating it for all IFR flight in all airspace types at all altitudes.

[mostlytossas]

I agree there will be some around for many years to come especially NDBs. But even if there were none why would you rip out your ADF unless you needed the panel space. You can still tune in to AM broadcast stations if you are ever in a situation that you need to find your way due failure of GPS etc. Their range (especially the ABC) far exceeds any NDB. I know CASA will now be wringing their poor little hands at the thought because they are not approved nav aids but if lost at night?? Just be aware of fade out at night and double check that the signal is coming from where you think it should be,because sometimes they will relay the broadcast. Double check with other stations.Years ago during WW2 they used to plot there location off shore by trianglating the bearings to different stations.
And as a last thing they good for listening to the footy.

[roundsounds]

Some interesting comments in this thread! All aeronautical navigation uses DR as the primary method of navigation, both VFR and IFR. DR is supported by navaids and/or map reading. The CASR Part 61 MOS (vol 2) lists radio navigation as a required competency for both the PPL and CPL, there is a legal requirement to be trained to a defined level of competency before being authorised to conduct solo navex's. The approval to use PEDs as EFBs is limited to satisfy the requirement to carry charts and manuals, not as a means of navigation. It concerns me when I see aircraft fitted with multiple PEDs mounted on control columns, stuck on instrument panels and hanging off window mounts. Surely one is enough, these devices will (if they haven't already) lead to accidents as the result of distractions, like mobile phones in cars are.

[Biggles_in_Oz]

The Backup Navigation Network has about 50 sites where there will be co-located VOR + DME + NDB, or VOR + DME, or DME + NDB.
There will only be about 60 standalone NDBs.

[outlandishoutlanding]

roundsounds,

Given that the ERCs are now RNP2, you would think that GNSS is the primary means of navigation for IFR these days.